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KAMIKAZE TOKKŌTAI

Aircraft A6M2 and A6M5 from the Shikishima-tai unit, armed with bombs, are taking off with a fighter escort from Mabalacat airfield on October 25, 1944. Behind the Model 21 aircraft numbered 02-888, a Model 52 aircraft with the marking 02-112 is visible, likely piloted by Lt. Yukio Seki. The pilot with a cast on his leg standing at the front right is Cdr. Sakae Yamamoto, commander of Kōkūtai 201, who was involved in organizing the first Kamikaze pilot unit. He was injured on October 19 during an emergency landing as a passenger in the fuselage of a single-seat Zero, piloted by Lt. Cdr. Tadashi Nakajima, a former Hikōtaichō of the Tainan Kōkūtai.


IJN ZERO FIGHTER SPECIAL ATTACK UNITS

 



Jan Bobek
Martin Ferkl

 

One of the most well-known words from the field of aviation, recognized even by those with no interest in the subject, is kamikaze. It is associated with the predominantly aerial campaign that began in October 1944 and lasted until the end of the war in the Pacific. During this period, hundreds of airmen sacrificed their lives in service of the Japanese Empire.

 

In Western civilization, these attacks are often referred to as suicide attacks, but this term is actually a misnomer. The primary objective of these troops was not suicide but self-sacrifice for the benefit of the Japanese Empire. Therefore, the more accurate term is special attack unit (tokubetsu kōgekitai, or tokkōtai for short), which better reflects the nature of these military operations.

Special attack units were organized within standard military formations. Various texts and sources published in Western countries often claim that Japanese airmen were forced to participate in these units. However, this is not true — they volunteered. In fact, especially during the first months of these units' existence, there were more volunteers than available seats in the planes designated for attacks. As a result, commanders had to be selective, prioritizing young, single men with no family commitments, often college students. However, from the outset, volunteers from elite naval families were also recruited into these units. The voluntary nature of participation is further evidenced by cases where airmen survived multiple special attack missions, either due to their planes being shot down or experiencing mechanical failures, and subsequently reapplied to join other units. Additionally, in multi-seat aircraft, all crew members were present, not just the pilot. A common misconception is the belief that airmen undertook these combat missions under the influence of drugs.

An airman was only considered a member of a special attack unit if he successfully carried out an attack on an enemy target with his aircraft. He did not become a member at the time of enlistment or even upon take off for an attack. Those who were unable to strike Allied ships, whether due to technical malfunctions or being shot down, are not officially counted among the kamikazes.

The first aircraft carrier to be sunk by a kamikaze attack was USS St. Lo (CVE-63) on October 25, 1944. The ship was hit probably by plane of Lt. Yukio Seki. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command


There are also documented cases where an aircraft en route to attack American vessels was shot down, resulting in the death of one crew member. After an emergency landing, the aircraft was repaired and took off again for its final attack, with the deceased airman still on board. Due to his “physical presence” in the aircraft, he was also listed as a member of the special attack unit.

On their final missions, special attack units flew with escort aircraft to ensure that the bomb-laden planes reached enemy ships and to assess the outcome of their attacks. It was not uncommon for escort pilots to refuse to return to base and instead join the attack themselves. The Japanese developed several escort tactics, with two being the most commonly used. In the first tactic, each special attack aircraft was assigned its own escort (or lead) aircraft, effectively serving as its wingman. Behind them, at a higher altitude, another group of escort fighters provided additional support. In the second tactic, the entire formation was led by a single reconnaissance aircraft. Behind it, at the same altitude, flew the first group of escort fighters, followed by special attack aircraft arranged in four-plane V formations. Behind them, at higher altitudes, two additional formations of escort fighters provided cover.

The Japanese Naval Air Force established these special attack units and ordered airmen to crash into enemy vessels under specific circumstances during the Allied invasion of the Philippines in October 1944. The concept of employing this tactic on a large scale had been advocated by some combat unit commanders since 1943. Such an order was unprecedented in the history of the modern Japanese armed forces, and it faced opposition from figures including Emperor Hirohito, Prime Minister Tōjō, and Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi — who was regarded as Admiral Yamamoto’s successor in naval aviation strategy. However, the Japanese air forces struggled against the highly sophisticated defenses of American carrier task forces. This challenge became evident during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, where Japanese forces suffered devastating losses at an approximate 6:1 ratio, managing to damage only a single battleship. This battle, along with previous combat missions, led many Japanese naval aviators to believe that their chances of returning from a combat flight were slim and that conventional bomber attacks had little likelihood of successfully hitting enemy targets.

Pilots of the Óka rocket-powered aircraft from Kōkūtai 721 assembling on March 21, 1945, before a combat mission from which none of them returned. In the foreground stands Lt. Kentarō Mitsuhashi, carrying the ashes of Lieutenant Tsutomu Kariya, who died during the first deployment of the Óka aircraft. Kōkūtai 721 contributed the second-largest number of kamikaze pilots using Zero aircraft, including pilots who were originally assigned to missions with the Óka.  Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

The destroyer USS Kidd (DD-661) is currently stationed in Baton Rouge, serving as a museum. As part of its display, visitors can see the wreckage of a Japanese aircraft that crashed into the ship on April 11, 1945. The aircraft was believed to be a Mitsubishi Zero, piloted by Lt. Yaguchi of Kōkūtai 721. He engaged the enemy as a member of the special attack unit Tenmu No. 5 and sent a message to launch the attack at 2:10 p.m. His Zero struck the forward boiler room, but the 500 kg bomb passed through the fuselage and detonated in the water. Despite this, Yaguchi’s attack resulted in 38 American sailors killed and 55 wounded. The USS Kidd sustained serious damage, requiring repairs in the United States, and never returned to combat. Photo: Martin Ferkl 

Japanese kamikaze Zero about to crash into the USS Kidd, off Okinawa on April 11, 1945. Photographed from the ship. Note escorting destroyer in the background. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command


Divine Wind in Leyte Gulf

American air raids on Formosa (Taiwan) and the Philippines in the fall of 1944 cost the Japanese Naval and Army Air Forces an additional 500 to 600 aircraft. In October, Vice Admiral Ōnishi was appointed commander of the 1st Air Fleet (1st Kōkū Kantai) in the Philippines. However, due to prior American strikes on Japanese bases, he had only about 100 aircraft of various types available on the eve of the Battle of Leyte Gulf and the anticipated Allied landing. Although Ōnishi initially opposed the idea of sacrificing airmen, he was ultimately forced to adopt this strategy. He sked command of Kōkūtai 201 — a unit stationed in the Philippines and equipped with Zeros, which had been training for months in “skip” bombing attacks against enemy vessels — to carry out these missions.

Admiral Ōnishi, together with the command of Kōkūtai 201, invited pilots to volunteer for the special attack group but feared how they might react. However, a large number of unit members eagerly signed up for this type of combat mission, and disputes arose when someone was not selected. The unit was named Kamikaze (Divine Wind), inspired by the typhoon that had helped destroy the Mongol naval forces during their attempted invasion of Japan in the 13th century. Officially, the group was designated Dai 1 Kamikaze Tokubetsu Kōgekitai, and within it, nine units were formed, each bearing battle names derived from Japanese historical and cultural traditions. (Note 1)

The most experienced pilot in Kōkūtai 201 was Lieutenant Naoshi Kanno, who had 25 aerial victories. At the time, he was in Japan preparing to transfer new aircraft to the Philippines. For months, Kanno had expressed a strong desire to organize and lead special attack missions. He even had a note attached to his personal bag stating that he was already dead, with his rank listed two steps higher, as if he had been posthumously promoted. However, to his disappointment, he was instead assigned to lead the fighter escorts for the special attack units.

The deployment tactics were developed by former bomber pilot Lieutenant Yukio Seki. The approach to the target was planned at two different flight levels, depending on cloud cover. Even when flying low over the water, the aircraft was instructed to gain altitude just before reaching the target, ideally drop a bomb, and then crash into the damaged section of the ship. This would compound the destruction with the additional impact of the aircraft and the explosion of its fuel. For attacks on aircraft carriers, the primary targets were forward or midship elevators. The Japanese did not expect to easily sink the carriers, but their goal was to disable them and render them inoperable in battle. In the case of battleships, cruisers, and destroyers, the designated target was the bridge.

The Shikishima Tai is often considered the first special attack unit. Led by Lieutenant Yukio Seki, the unit took off to engage the enemy on October 25, 1944, from Mabalacat Airfield in the Philippines. Its members are credited with sinking the escort carrier USS St. Lo (CVE-63). Several other escort carriers were also damaged that day, including USS Santee (CVE-20), USS Suwanee (CVE-27), USS Kitkun Bay (CVE-71), USS White Plains (CVE-66), and USS Kalinin Bay (CVE-68). Most of the attacking aircraft were Zeros, as nearly all available aircraft assigned to special attack missions that day were of this type — except for two Suisei bombers. In total, 17 aircraft (15 Zeros and 2 Suisei), carrying 19 pilots, participated in the attack. On the American side, 182 sailors were killed, with at least 168 wounded. However, the number of additional casualties on the USS St. Lo remains unknown, meaning the true number of wounded was likely much higher. Despite its reputation, Shikishima Tai was not actually the first unit of this kind. Earlier, on October 21 and 23, 1944, two Zero pilots launched special attacks from Cebu Airfield. The first was Lieutenant Tōfu Kunō, and the second was Chief Petty Officer Satō. Like the members of Shikishima Tai, they were part of Kōkūtai 201, but their special attack unit was called Yamato Tai.

The aircraft carrier USS Lexington (CV-16) is moored as a museum in Corpus Christi, Texas. Also on display are the remnants of a Mitsubishi Zero that was intended to strike the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) on May 14, 1945. The aircraft was piloted by Lt. Shunsuke Tomiyasu of Kōkūtai 721. On that day, Kōkūtai 721 dispatched the special attack unit Kenmu No. 11 (five Zeroes) along with Tsukuba No. 6 (14 Zeroes), to which Lt. Tomiyasu belonged. The Japanese aviator managed to crash through the flight deck at the bow of the Enterprise, triggering an explosion below. The blast sent parts of the forward elevator flying tens of meters into the air. Fourteen sailors were killed, and 68 were wounded. Eight crew members were blown overboard by the 500 kg bomb’s detonation but were rescued from the water by a nearby destroyer. The attack left Enterprise severely damaged, rendering it inoperable for the remainder of the war.  Photo: Martin Ferkl

Lt. Shunsuke Tomiyasu of Kōkūtai 721 with his Zero in the final phase of the attack on USS Enterprise on May 14, 1945. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

The damaged area in front of the USS Enterprise's forward elevator after Lt. Tomiyasu’s attack. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command


Battle for the Philippines

The Japanese Army Air Force engaged its special assault units in the defense of the Philippines to a lesser extent about two weeks later. Unlike their Navy Air Force counterparts, these units were composed largely of training personnel. Concurrently, both Japanese air forces continued to conduct conventional attacks on land and naval targets.

For the defenders aboard Allied vessels, this marked an extraordinary shift in enemy tactics, initially perceived by some commanders as desperate to the point of folly. However, the kamikaze attacks were immediately censored for the Allied press, and an objective assessment of the strategy soon emerged. The Allied command recognized that these were well-coordinated operations executed with clear intent to strike critical parts of ships. Furthermore, due to the one-way nature of the flights, the special attack aircraft had a greater operational range. If a pilot located the target early, the damage was amplified by more fuel ignited upon impact after the detonation of the aircraft's bomb.

During the Philippine campaign, Zeros comprised the vast majority of aircraft used by the Japanese Naval Air Force's special attack units. From October 21, 1944, to January 9, 1945, Kōkūtai 201 deployed more than 200 Zeros in over 60 special attacks, with only a few failing to reach their targets due to unfavorable weather.

Starting in late October, units in the Philippines were reinforced by Kōkūtai 221, which was equipped not only with Zeros but also with Tenzan and Suisei aircraft. This Kōkūtai also designated Zeros for special attack missions and integrated into its ranks pilots from sunken carriers in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, as well as pilots from carrier units previously assigned to land-based operations.

During the campaign in the Philippines, the Japanese Navy deployed a total of 421 aircraft in kamikaze attacks, 43 of which returned for various reasons. Additionally, 239 fighter aircraft were assigned as escorts, with 102 lost in action. During these operations, naval aviators claimed to have sunk 37 ships, including five aircraft carriers, and were credited with damaging 68 other vessels, including nine aircraft carriers.

However, actual losses inflicted by Army and Navy airmen in these special attack operations amounted to 20 ships destroyed or scuttled, including two aircraft carriers and four destroyers. Another 87 ships sustained damage, including 22 aircraft carriers.

A Zero piloted by PO2c Setsuo Ishino in the final moments before crashing into the side of USS Missouri on April 11, 1945.  Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

A fire on the aircraft carrier USS Bunker Hill (CV-17) near the island structure after Ensign Kiyoshi Ogawa's attack on May 11, 1945. Among other damage, the bomb hit the ready room with VF-84 pilots, killing 22 of them. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

Destroyer USS Laffey after the battle of special attack planes on April 16, 1945, north of Okinawa. Shown here is a starboard side view abreast of No. 3 5 inch gun mount. Landing craft LST 677 is alongside. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

Fifteen radar picket stations are shown in the Okinawa area. Radar picket destroyers were ordered to operate within a radius of 5,000 yards from the center of each station. The center of each radar picket station is indicated by latitude and longitude, as well as by range and bearing from Point BOLO. Destroyers such as the USS Laffey were frequent targets of large-scale bombing and kamikaze attacks. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

Flight deck of USS Langley (CVL-27) under repair after being hit by a kamikaze, off Formosa, 21 January 1945. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

The British aircraft carrier HMS Formidable in May 1945 after a kamikaze attack. The armored decks of British aircraft carriers withstood enemy attacks much better than the decks of American carriers. Photo: IWM


Battle of Iwo Jima and Operation Kikusui

During the raids on Formosa in January 1945 and the Iwo Jima landings, only a few special attacks were conducted. However, in preparation for the anticipated invasion of Okinawa, the Japanese Navy Air Force developed Operation Kikusui, which was launched in coordination with the Army Air Forces on April 6, 1945 — five days after the American landing.

To ensure and protect the landing, Allied forces, including the British Navy, deployed 18 battleships, 27 cruisers, 177 destroyers, 39 aircraft carriers, and hundreds of support vessels. Around the island, the Americans stationed destroyers at 15 pre-designated Picket Stations to assist in directing defensive fighter operations against Japanese attacks using their radar systems. Many Allied vessels had limited maneuverability during these attacks, as they were providing fire support to the invading forces, supplying troops, or evacuating the wounded in the immediate vicinity of the island.

Unlike the fighting in the Philippines, Allied vessels were positioned at a considerable distance from Japanese bases on Formosa and Kyushu. In both cases, the approach route was approximately 1,000 km long. During special attacks, Japanese airmen gradually refined their tactics, optimizing flight paths based on changing weather conditions and using the islands around Okinawa as obstacles to American radar detection. The only naval fighter capable of escorting kamikaze aircraft all the way to their targets was the Zero. Shiden and Shiden-Kai aircraft participated in escort missions but only for part of the journey.

The A6M5 Type 52c aircraft taking off on a special attack mission. A 500kg bomb is mounted under the fuselage, and the cannons have been removed to reduce weight. Only two machine guns were left in the wings.  Photo: US Naval Heritage Command


Ōka planes and Zero pilots

During the battle for Okinawa, the variety of naval aircraft used in special attack operations was more diverse compared to the Philippine campaign. Among the most well-known were Ōka aircraft, which were carried to their targets by G4M2e Betty bombers. These slow and highly vulnerable bombers were escorted by Zeros from the same unit, Kōkūtai 721. However, the Zeros were not just escorts — they were also used as special attack aircraft, armed with 500 kg bomb. Many of these were A6M5c models, modified to reduce weight by removing their 20mm wing-mounted cannons.

The formation of these units, named Tenmu, stemmed from the fact that a considerable number of pilots had been trained to fly Ōka aircraft but, due to a shortage of Betty bombers, had no way to carry out their final missions. In addition to several Tenmu units, in May these pilots were reassigned to other special attack units known as Shōwa, Shinken, and Shichisei, which had previously included pilots from the Yatabe, Genzan (II), and Omura Kōkūtai training units.

A member of Tenmu Unit No. 5, PO2c Setsuo Ishino, received special military honors — albeit from an adversary he likely never expected. On April 11, 1945, he took off from Kanoya Base shortly after noon in a Zero Model 52c. His original target was the aircraft carrier USS Intrepid (CV-11), but accurate anti-aircraft fire forced him to change course and head for the battleship USS Missouri (BB-63) instead. He aimed his Zero at the starboard side of the ship, but the 500 kg bomb he was carrying failed to detonate. As a result, the battleship sustained only minimal damage, and no American sailors were killed. Ishino’s remains were found aboard the ship. Despite objections from his crew, USS Missouri’s captain, William M. Callahan, decided to bury the Japanese aviator at sea with full honors, including the use of a hastily made Japanese flag. (Note 2)

A month later, on May 11, 1945, two members of Shōwa Unit No. 7 successfully struck the aircraft carrier USS Bunker Hill (CV-17), causing severe damage. The attack is credited to Seizō Yasunori and Kiyoshi Ogawa, both members of Hikōtai 306, a fighter squadron assigned to Kōkūtai 721. They took off on their final mission at 06:40 from Kanoya Base in southern Kyūshū.

Their Zeros hit Bunker Hill just after 10:00 AM, resulting in 396 sailors killed and 264 wounded —the highest number of U.S. casualties on a single vessel caused by this type of attack. The carrier was forced to return to the United States for repairs and did not return to combat. (Note 3)

A Japanese airman helps tie a hachimaki headband on his comrade, symbolizing courage. It was often worn by kamikaze pilots, but it was also used on other occasions, even outside of military settings. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Force used various types of aircraft for kamikaze attacks; this photo shows D3A Val dive bombers during the defense of the Philippines. Both the Army and Navy air forces carried out standard bombing attacks on enemy vessels alongside kamikaze missions. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command


Zero trainers in Okinawa battle

The two-seat A6M2-K Zero trainer was also used in special attack operations. These aircraft came from training units that also organized special attack units, including Tsukuba Kōkūtai, Yatabe Kōkūtai, Genzan (II) Kōkūtai, Ōmura Kōkūtai, and Kasumigaura Kōkūtai. As these were based on the Zero Type 21, they were equipped with weaker engines and carried 250 kg bomb mounted under the fuselage.

 

Assessment of the special attacks at Okinawa

During the battle for Okinawa, from early April to late June 1945, the Japanese Naval and Army Air Forces deployed approximately 1,800 aircraft in special attack operations, resulting in the deaths of around 3,000 airmen. By the spring of 1945, some airmen were no longer volunteering for these missions and were instead forced into special attack operations, a practice that sparked protests within parts of the Japanese command. Some pilots even refused to carry out these missions, repeatedly returning to base from bombing flights.

In this operation, Zero aircraft piloted by kamikaze pilots were deployed not only by the previously mentioned Kōkūtai 721 and training units but also by Kōkūtai 601, 252, and 210. Fighter escort missions using Zero aircraft were provided by Kōkūtai 352 and 131, with the latter also conducting night flights against Allied night fighters along the route between Kyūshū and Okinawa.

Special attack units were not limited to aircraft; they also utilized boats, Kaiten manned torpedoes, and other combat assets. On the Allied side, an average of 1.5 vessels were struck daily off Okinawa, and the relentless attacks, combined with constant high-alert conditions, led to severe mental and moral exhaustion among many crew members.

During the campaign, approximately 40 Allied vessels were either sunk or damaged beyond repair, with three-quarters of them being destroyers patrolling the Picket Stations. Perhaps the most famous destroyer on this mission was the USS Laffey, which, on April 16, 1945, withstood an attack by approximately 50 (presumably Army) special attack aircraft. About half of these attackers were shot down by U.S. Navy and USMC fighters, while others were destroyed by the destroyer's anti-aircraft defenses. However, the vessel was struck by four bombs and rammed by eight Japanese aircraft.

During the battles off Okinawa, nearly 200 additional vessels were damaged by special attack units, including twelve U.S. aircraft carriers, among them the USS Enterprise. The British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious was also damaged.

Nearly 5,000 crew members aboard American ships were killed, with approximately the same number wounded in Japanese attacks. Hundreds of casualties also occurred aboard British and Dutch vessels as a result of these attacks.

Between March 18 and June 22, 1945, U.S. forces engaged in intense aerial battles with Japanese airmen. U.S. Navy (USN) fighters claimed 1,594 aerial victories, while U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) pilots scored 631 kills, and U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) pilots shot down 101 enemy aircraft. A significant portion of these victories were achieved while defending Allied vessels from kamikaze raids.

A kamikaze pilot in an A6M5 Type 52c crashes near the USS Essex (CV-9) off Okinawa on May 14, 1945. Note the aircraft’s broken tail and the hole in its wing. The plane’s cannons had been removed prior to the kamikaze mission, leaving only the wing-mounted machine guns. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

Wearing flight jackets with the VF-9 insignia, Hellcat pilots pose with a sign commemorating their fifty victories over Japanese aircraft. From left to right: Lieutenant Harris E. Mitchell (9 victories at Okinawa, 10 total), Lieutenant Junior Grade Clinton L. Smith (5 victories at Okinawa, 6 total), Lieutenant Junior Grade James B. French (10 victories at Okinawa, 11 total), and Lieutenant Eugene A. Valencia (12 victories, including 5 at Okinawa, 23 total). Valencia was ranked as the top Allied ace in combat against kamikaze aircraft. Photo: US Naval Heritage Command


The legacy of kamikaze pilots

The effectiveness of special attack operations has long been debated. While it is undeniable that these tactics did not prevent Japan’s defeat, Japanese airmen nonetheless managed to strike, damage, or sink a significant number of American vessels, including aircraft carriers. The threat they posed was so severe that the Americans were forced to implement numerous defensive measures, such as deploying forward-positioned destroyers equipped with radar and establishing an air patrol system. The fear of these attacks during the planned invasion of Japan was one of the factors that contributed to the decision to drop the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Shortly after Japan’s surrender and the lifting of wartime censorship, the Japanese military command, particularly those responsible for the special attack units, became the target of criticism from religious leaders, intellectuals and scholars. Many former special attack unit pilots, if recognized in public, even faced insults and hostility.

Gradually, however, public opinion began to shift. Farewell letters from kamikaze pilots were published, surviving veterans shared their testimonies, and with the opening of the Chiran Peace Museum for Kamikaze Pilots, numerous other memorials dedicated to these pilots were established, including approximately 200 websites.

The names of 5,843 members of the special attack units are inscribed at Yasukuni Shrine, which honors those who gave their lives for their country — a distinction considered a great honor. The aforementioned Setsuo Ishino also referenced Yasukuni in his farewell letter to his mother, writing: “[…] The day when we meet next will be under the splendid flowers at Yasukuni Shrine. […]”

A Japanese Yokosuka MXY7 Óka ("Baka") piloted flying bomb, captured intact by Marines on Okinawa, photographed on June 26, 1945, while being studied by experts at the Navy Air Material Unit (N.A.M.). Several dozen launching platforms for Óka aircraft were under construction in the Japanese mountains. The large number of various aircraft prepared by Japanese forces for the defense of the home islands indicated the potential for significant losses among Allied ships and their crews during invasion. This formidable threat was one of the factors contributing to the decision to deploy atomic bombs.  Photo: US Naval Heritage Command

This bronze statue of a kamikaze pilot stands to the left of the main entrance to the Yūshūkan, founded in 1882 as the museum of the Yasukuni Jinja (Shrine). In 2005, a plaque was placed to the left of the statue, commemorating 5,843 members of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Army Special Attack Units. Representing the 2,514 men of the Naval Kamikaze units, Lieutenant Seki is mentioned as their leader. Photo: Yasuyuki Hirata


In preparing the article and the model kit, we were assisted by Mr. Muranishi, Mr. Yoshino, Voytek Kubacki, and Royan Toews. The calligraphy of the inscription 'Kamikaze Tokkōtai' was created by Mrs. Mari Kučera. We would like to thank all of them.


Notes:

1) An interesting issue is the transcription of the term “divine wind,” for which “kamikaze” has become the established term, particularly in reference to Japanese aviators, including in contemporary Japanese media. The name consists of two characters (神風), pronounced “kamikaze” in Japanese transcription and “shinpū” in Sino-Japanese transcription. Both variants are correct, but their usage depends on context. For example, the Japanese Navy had two classes of Kamikaze destroyers in the first half of the 20th century. Veterans of Kōkūtai 201, in a memoir published in 1958 in collaboration with American historians, stated that the term "Kamikaze" should be used exclusively for naval aviators in special attack units. This name was commonly used in the designation of many IJN special attack units. After the war, the word “kamikaze” took on a slightly pejorative connotation in Japan and was sometimes used to describe reckless or foolish actions. For instance, a taxi driver engaging in risky driving might be described as operating a “kamikaze taxi.” Notably, in the Army Air Force special attack units, the term “divine wind” was never used. Instead, the Japanese 6th Air Army employed the term Shinbu-tai (振武隊) for special attack units during the defense of Okinawa. The term “shinbu” can be loosely translated as “military might,” though it carries additional combat-related meanings. Occasionally, the terms shinpū and shinbu are mistakenly used interchangeably when referring to naval and army special attack units.

 

2) The identification of Ishino as the pilot of the Zero that struck the USS Missouri is not definitive. Another possible, though less likely, candidate is Petty Officer 2nd Class Kenkishi (Kanekichi) Ishii, who was a member of the same special attack unit as Ishino. However, Ishii is credited with an unsuccessful attack on the USS Wisconsin (BB-64).

 

3) Several sources list the Seizō/Ogawa pair as the pilots responsible for damaging the USS Bunker Hill. However, Dan King, author of a publication on Kōkūtai 721, attributes the damage to other pilots. He identifies Seizō as the pilot of the Zero that was shot down during the attack and places him in Tenmu Unit No. 10.

 

4) The “(II)” in Genzan (II) Kōkūtai indicates that it was the second unit with the same name in sequence. The first Genzan Kōkūtai was equipped with G3M Nell and G4M Betty bombers and saw combat during the early phase of the Pacific War. In November 1942, it was renamed Kōkūtai 755. It is also possible to encounter the designation “(2)” in the unit’s name. In such cases, this indicates that two units with the same name existed simultaneously, with the numeral “2” used to distinguish them.

 

Main sources:

BOBEK, Jan: various articles published in magazines REVI and INFO Eduard

FERKL, Martin: various articles published in magazine REVI

HATA, Ikuhiko, YASUHO, Izawa, SHORES, Christopher: Japanese Naval Air Force Fighter Units and Their Aces, 1932–1945

HATA, Ikuhiko, YASUHO, Izawa, SHORES, Christopher: Japanese Army Air Force Units and Their Aces, 1931–1945

INOGUCHI, Capt. Rikihei, NAKAJIMA, Cdr. Tadashi with PINEAU, Roger: The Divine Wind, Japan´s Kamikaze Force in World War II

KING, Dan: Blossoms from the Sky

Model Art 458: Imperial Japanese Navy Air Force Suicide Attack Unit “Kamikaze”

RIELLY, Robin L.: Kamikaze Attacks of World War II

STERN, Robert C.: Fire from the Sky, Surviving the Kamikaze Threat

WARNER, Denis, WARNER, Peggy with SENO, Cdr. (ret.) Sadao: The Sacred Warriors: Japan´s Suicide Legions

YOUNG, Edward M.: American Aces Against the Kamikaze

https://www.kamikazeimages.net/


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INFO Eduard is a monthly scale model-historical magazine published in Czech and English by Eduard Model Accessories since 2010. The magazine is available for free on the Triobo platform and can be downloaded in PDF format. Eduard is a manufacturer of plastic models and accessories with over 30 years of tradition. Throughout its history in the plastic modeling industry, Eduard has become one of the world's leaders. Further details about the company and its product range can be found at www.eduard.com. You can subscribe to the INFO magazine and receive product information for free at: https://www.eduard.com/cs/info-eduard/

 

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KAMIKAZE TOKKŌTAI

KAMIKAZE TOKKŌTAI

One of the most well-known words from the field of aviation, recognized even by those with no interest in the subject, is kamikaze. It is associated with the predominantly aerial campaign that began in October 1944 and lasted until the end of the war in the Pacific. During this period, hundreds of airmen sacrificed their lives in service of the Japanese Empire.

04/2025

Dekelia Greek Air Force Museum

Dekelia Greek Air Force Museum

The Hellenic Air Force Museum is a relatively young institution, having existed in its current form since 1986. However, it certainly has a lot to build on, as its aviation collections were previously part of the Hellenic War Museum. The museum is organisationally under the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) administration and its mission is not only historical research, collection, preservation and access to exhibits, but also the retrieval, conservation and restoration of artefacts related to Greek aviation history.

04/2025

Aerial War in Ukraine - The First Mirage 2000s Have Arrived

Aerial War in Ukraine - The First Mirage 2000s Have Arrived

The full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine began three years ago, on February 24, 2022. This continuation of the series does not only cover the most recent period from February 1, 2025, to February 28, 2025, but also recaps events from the past year. However, we will start with the most significant updates—developments on the global political scene.

04/2025

Like a Painting on Canvas

Like a Painting on Canvas

Market Garden was the largest Allied airborne operation of World War II, launched on 17 September 1944 in the Netherlands. Its objective was to use paratroopers (the "Market" component) and the rapid advance of ground forces (the "Garden" component) to seize key bridges over rivers and canals, thereby creating a corridor for an attack into Germany. However, the operation ultimately failed due to strong German resistance, poor coordination, and delays in the Allied advance, particularly at Arnhem, where British paratroopers were unable to hold a crucial bridge.

04/2025

Tail End Charlie - Almost an April problem

Tail End Charlie - Almost an April problem

It's not entirely my fault that I’m writing my Tail End Charlie text at the last-minute again. I scheduled my work quite responsibly yesterday, Sunday, two days before the current issue was due out. However, somehow I didn't keep up at the end of the day. Understandably, I could blame my slow work, my tendency to run away from responsibilities, orstimuli that release the right hormones into my brain for the wrong mood, and a thousand other things rooted solely in my nature, irresponsibility, and laziness. But this time it's different my friends.

04/2025

Flying Knights in Australia

Flying Knights in Australia

03/2025

P-40E Warhawk

P-40E Warhawk

The Curtiss P-40 line of fighter aircraft stood out among American fighter types for having remained in front-line operations from the summer of 1941, before the U.S. entered World War II, through the end of the conflict four years later. Only Grumman’s versatile F4F Wildcat naval fighter could match that record.

02/2025

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